This article explores the complex relationship between empathy and the unconscious in psychoanalysis, as presented by Stefano Bolognini in his seminal work Empathy and the Unconscious. It examines the structural, thematic, and dynamic aspects of these concepts, analyzing their theoretical interconnection and practical relevance within the psychoanalytic process. Through historical perspectives and clinical examples, the study highlights empathy as a bridge to understanding unconscious defenses and facilitating deeper therapeutic work. Potential challenges—such as overempathizing and oversimplification—are also discussed, alongside strategies for achieving a balanced psychoanalytic approach.
Introduction
Empathy and the unconscious are two fundamental yet seemingly distinct concepts in psychoanalytic theory. Empathy refers to the capacity to connect with and understand the emotional state of another person, while the unconscious relates to the hidden and dynamic aspects of the human psyche. Bolognini (2001) argues that these two dimensions can operate complementarily, forming a powerful framework for psychoanalytic exploration. This paper summarizes Bolognini’s arguments and focuses on the role of empathy in accessing unconscious defenses and the challenges inherent in its use.
Empathy: A Thematic Concept
Empathy emerged as an independent topic in psychoanalysis in the mid-twentieth century, gaining prominence with the rise of ego psychology. Scholars such as Greenson (1960) distinguished empathy from total identification, describing it as a transient and bounded state. Empathy allows the analyst to understand the patient’s emotional experiences without losing objectivity. Concepts such as Bion’s “reverie,” Kohut’s “vicarious introspection,” and Stern’s “attunement” all underscore empathy’s transformative role in therapeutic outcomes.
Bolognini emphasizes that empathy can transcend conscious and preconscious boundaries, allowing the analyst to connect with the patient on multiple levels. However, it must be applied carefully to avoid empathism—a state in which the analyst becomes overly immersed in the patient’s emotions and loses analytic neutrality (Bolognini, 1997b).
The Unconscious: A Structural Concept
Freud’s model of the unconscious provides the theoretical foundation for understanding the defensive mechanisms that protect individuals from confronting painful truths. According to Bolognini, empathy opens semi-conscious channels that allow the analyst to engage with the “defensive ego.” This engagement reduces resistance and facilitates the integration of repressed material. For example, an empathic connection with the patient’s inner conflicts can help identify defensive mechanisms and foster greater self-awareness.
Challenges in the Use of Empathy
a) Oversimplifying Empathy
Empathy is often mistakenly regarded as a simple emotional process. Bolognini warns that such an interpretation risks overlooking the complexity of the patient’s unconscious world. True empathy must go beyond surface-level understanding and engage with unconscious defenses and disavowed aspects of the patient’s psyche.
b) The Risk of Empathism
Excessive empathy, or empathism, can blur the boundaries between analyst and patient. This phenomenon undermines analytic neutrality and may disrupt the therapeutic process. Bolognini calls for a balanced approach that integrates empathy with critical distance.
Clinical Applications and Case Studies
1. The Case of Anna
Anna, a 38-year-old physician, had limited interpersonal relationships and struggled in her analysis. She led a solitary life and often avoided conversation during sessions, requesting greater self-disclosure from the analyst.
In one session, Anna shared two memories. The first involved a childhood sexual interaction with her brother, discovered by their father, which resulted in deep shame. The second recalled a childhood experiment gone wrong, followed by severe punishment. Analysis revealed that Anna’s unconscious defenses prevented her from accessing her genuine emotions.
Through empathic engagement, the analyst was able to identify these defensive patterns and encourage Anna to reconnect with her repressed feelings. This process gradually deepened her self-understanding and facilitated analytic progress.
2. The Case of Piero
Piero, a successful businessman, initially approached analysis with hostility and mistrust. He ridiculed both the analyst and the therapeutic process, avoiding emotional connection.
In one session, Piero described witnessing a woman in a restaurant lifting a glass to her mouth with her foot. His initial reaction was anger, but upon realizing that the woman had lost her hands, he felt guilt. This story symbolized Piero’s emotional life—cut off from authentic human connection.
This empathic moment allowed the analyst to penetrate Piero’s unconscious defenses, revealing deeper internal conflicts. The experience strengthened the therapeutic alliance and helped Piero begin to accept his own vulnerabilities.
Balancing Psychoanalytic Empathy
Bolognini stresses that empathy in psychoanalysis requires balance. The analyst must:
On one hand, empathize with the patient and understand their emotional world.
On the other hand, maintain analytic distance and avoid becoming absorbed in the patient’s emotions.
Empathy is a dynamic tool that adapts to the moment-to-moment needs of analysis. The analyst may need to shift between deep empathic engagement and relative detachment to best respond to the patient’s condition.
Conclusion
In his work, Bolognini offers a robust framework for enhancing psychoanalytic practice. Empathy, when applied correctly, facilitates access to the deepest psychic layers and helps patients confront repressed content. However, analysts must use empathy judiciously, avoiding the pitfalls of oversimplification or empathism. This balanced approach demonstrates the transformative power of empathy within psychoanalysis.
References
Bolognini, S. (2001). Empathy and the unconscious. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 70(2), 447–471.
Bolognini, S. (1997b). Empathy and “empathism.” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 78, 279–293.
Greenson, R. R. (1960). Empathy and its vicissitudes. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 41, 418–424.
Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self: A systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. London: Hogarth.
